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澳大利亚是个风景胜地，有着阳光海滩，热带雨林，沙漠和丛林。澳大利亚是世界第六大国，一千七百五十万人口，国土面积两百九十七万平方米。首都是堪培拉，但很有可能你对其他主要城市更熟悉，比如悉尼、阿德莱德、墨尔本、珀斯和布里斯班。悉尼歌剧院是现代世界最具识别度的建筑之一，坐落于自港口延伸而出的本纳隆角。
错别字：Austrlia应为Australia、typicai应为typical
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that lack a cell wall. Because they lack a cell wall, they are unaffected by some antibiotics such as penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans, including M. pneumoniae, which is an important cause of atypical pneumonia and other respiratory disorders, and M. genitalium, which is believed to be involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases. They may cause or contribute to some cancers.
The genus Mycoplasma is one of several genera within the class Mollicutes. Mollicutes are bacteria which have small genomes, lack a cell wall and have a low GC-content (18-40 mol%). There are over 100 recognized species of the genus Mycoplasma. Their genome size ranges from 0.58 - 1.38 megabase-pairs. Mollicutes are parasites or commensals of humans, animals (including insects), and plants; the genus Mycoplasma is by definition restricted to vertebrate hosts. Cholesterol is required for the growth of species of the genus Mycoplasma as well as certain other genera of mollicutes. Their optimum growth temperature is often the temperature of their host if warmbodied (e.g. 37 degrees Celsius in humans) or ambient temperature if the host is unable to regulate its own internal temperature. Analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA sequences as well as gene content strongly suggest that the mollicutes, including the mycoplasmas, are closely related to either the Lactobacillus or the Clostridium branch of the phylogenetic tree (Firmicutes sensu stricto).
Mycoplasmas are often found in research laboratories as contaminants in cell culture. Mycoplasmal cell culture contamination occurs due to contamination from individuals or contaminated cell culture medium ingredients. The Mycoplasma cell is usually smaller than 1 µm and they are therefore difficult to detect with a conventional microscope. Mycoplasmas may induce cellular changes, including chromosome aborations, changes in metabolism and cell growth. Severe mycoplasma infections may destroy a cell line. Detection techniques include PCR, plating on sensitive agar and staining with a DNA stain including DAPI or Hoechst.
The bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma (trivial name: mycoplasmas) and their close relatives are largely characterized by lack of a cell wall. Despite this, the shapes of these cells often conform to one of several possibilities with varying degrees of intricacy. For example, the members of the genus Spiroplasma assume an elongated helical shape without the aid of a rigid structural cell envelope. These cell shapes presumably contribute to the ability of mycoplasmas to thrive in their respective environments. M. pneumoniae cells possess an extension, the so-called 'tip-structure', protruding from the coccoid cell body. This structure is involved in adhesion to host cells, in movement along solid surfaces (gliding motility), and in cell division. M. pneumoniae cells are of small size and pleomorphic, but with a rough shape in longitudinal cross-section resembling that of a round-bottomed flask.
Mycoplasmas are unusual among bacteria in that most require sterols for the stability of their cytoplasmic membrane. Sterols are acquired from the environment, usually as cholesterol from the animal host. Mycoplasmas also generally possess a relatively small genome of 0.58-1.38 megabases, which results in drastically reduced biosynthetic capabilities and explains their dependence on a host. Additionally they use an alternate genetic code where the codon UGA is encoding for the amino acid tryptophan instead of the usual opal stop codon.
In 1898 Nocard and Roux reported the cultivation of the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), which was at that time a grave and widespread disease in cattle herds. Today the disease is still endemic in Africa and Southern Europe. The disease is caused by M. mycoides subsp. mycoides SC (small-colony type), and the work of Nocard and Roux represented the first isolation of a mycoplasma species. Cultiviation was, and still is difficult because of the complex growth requirements. These researchers succeeded by inoculating a semi-permeable pouch of sterile medium with pulmonary fluid from an infected animal and depositing this pouch intraperitoneally into a live rabbit. After fifteen to twenty days, the fluid inside of the recovered pouch was opaque, indicating the growth of a microorganism. Opacitiy of the fluid was not seen in the control. This turbid broth could then be used to inoculate a second and third round and subsequently introduced into a healthy animal, causing disease. However, this did not work if the material was heated, indicating a biological agent at work. Uninoculated media in the pouch, after removal from the rabbit, could be used to grow the organism in vitro, demonstrating the possibility of cell-free cultivation and ruling out viral causes, although this was not fully appreciated at the time (Nocard and Roux, 1890). The name Mycoplasma, from the Greek mykes (fungus) and plasma (formed), was proposed in the 1950’s, replacing the term pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO) referring to organisms similar to the causative agent of CBPP (Edward and Freundt, 1956). It was later found that the fungus-like growth pattern of M. mycoides is unique to that species.
This confusion about mycoplasmas and virus would surface again 50 years later when Eaton and colleagues cultured the causative agent of human primary atypical pneumonia (PAP) or 'walking pneumonia.' This agent could be grown in chicken embryos and passed through a filter that excluded normal bacteria. However, it could not be observed by high magnification light microscopy, and it caused a pneumonia that could not be treated with the antimicrobials sulphonamides and penicillin (Eaton, et al., 1945a). Eaton did consider the possibility that the disease was caused by a mycoplasma, but the agent did not grow on the standard PPLO media of the time. These observations led to the conclusion that the causative agent of PAP is a virus. Researchers at that time showed that the cultured agent could induce disease in experimentally infected cotton rats and hamsters. In spite of controversy whether the researchers had truly isolated the causative agent of PAP (based largely on the unusual immunological response of patients with PAP), in retrospect their evidence along with that of colleagues and competitors appears to have been quite conclusive (Marmion, 1990). In the early 1960's, there were reports linking Eaton's Agent to the PPLOs or mycoplasmas, well known then as parasites of cattle and rodents, due to sensitivity to antimicrobial compounds (i.e. organic gold salt) (Marmion and Goodburn, 1961). The ability to grow Eaton's Agent, now known as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, in cell free media allowed an explosion of research into what had overnight become the most medically important mycoplasma and what was to become the most studied mycoplasma.
Recent advances in molecular biology and genomics have brought the genetically simple mycoplasmas, particularly M. pneumoniae and its close relative M. genitalium, to a larger audience. The second published complete bacterial genome sequence was that of M. genitalium, which has one of the smallest genomes of free-living organisms (Fraser, et al., 1995). The M. pneumoniae genome sequence was published soon afterwards and was the first genome sequence determined by primer walking of a cosmid library instead of the whole-genome shotgun method (Himmelerich, et al., 1996). Mycoplasma genomics and proteomics continue in efforts to understand the so-called minimal cell (Hutchison and Montague, 2002), catalog the entire protein content of a cell (Regula, et al., 2000), and generally continue to take advantage of the small genome of these organisms to understand broad biological concepts.
Scientists have also been exploring an association between mycoplasma and cancer. Despite a number of interesting studies, this cancer bacteria association hasn't been clearly established, and has yet to be fully elucidated (Ning and Shou, 2004), (Tsai, et al., 1995).
The medical and agricultural importance of members of the genus Mycoplasma and related genera has led to the extensive cataloging of many of these organisms by culture, serology, and small subunit rRNA gene and whole genome sequencing. A recent focus in the sub-discipline of molecular phylogenetics has both clarified and confused certain aspects of the organization of the class Mollicutes, and while a truce of sorts has been reached, the area is still somewhat of a moving target (Johansson and Pettersson, 2002).
The name mollicutes is derived from the Latin mollis (soft) and cutes (skin), and all of these bacteria do lack a cell wall and the genetic capability to synthesize peptidoglycan. While the trivial name 'mycoplasmas' has commonly denoted all members of this class, this usage is somewhat imprecise and will not be used as such here. Despite the lack of a cell wall, Mycoplasma and relatives have been classified in the phylum Firmicutes consisting of low G+C Gram-positive bacteria such as Clostridium, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus based on 16S rRNA gene analysis. The cultured members of Mollicutes are currently arranged into four orders: Acholeplasmatales, Anaeroplasmatales, Entomoplasmatales, and Mycoplasmatales. The order Mycoplasmatales contains a single family, Mycoplasmataceae, which contains two genera: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. Historically, the description of a bacterium lacking a cell wall was sufficient to classify it to the genus Mycoplasma and as such it is the oldest and largest genus of the class with about half of the class' species (107 validly described) each usually limited to a specific host and with many hosts harboring more than one species, some pathogenic and some commensal. In later studies, many of these species were found to be phylogenetically distributed among at least three separate orders. A limiting criterion for inclusion within the genus Mycoplasma is that the organism have a vertebrate host. In fact, the type species, M. mycoides , along with other significant mycoplasma species like M. capricolum, is evolutionarily more closely related to the genus Spiroplasma in the order Entomoplasmatales than to the other members of the Mycoplasma genus. This and other discrepancies will likely remain unresolved because of the extreme confusion that change could engender among the medical and agricultural communities. The remaining species in the genus Mycoplasma are divided into two non-taxonomic groups, hominis and pneumoniae, based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. The hominis group contains the phylogenetic clusters of M. bovis, M. pulmonis, and M. hominis, among others. The pneumoniae group contains the clusters of M. muris, M. fastidiosum, U. urealyticum, the currently unculturable haemotrophic mollicutes, informally referred to as haemoplasmas (recently transferred from the genera Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon), and the M. pneumoniae cluster. This cluster contains the species (and the usual or likely host) M. alvi (bovine), M. amphoriforme (human), M. gallisepticum (avian), M. genitalium (human), M. imitans (avian), M. pirum (uncertain/human), M. testudinis (tortoises), and M. pneumoniae (human). Most if not all of these species share some otherwise unique characteristics including an attachment organelle, homologs of the M. pneumoniae cytadherence-accessory proteins, and specialized modifications of the cell-division apparatus.
A detailed analysis of the 16S rRNA genes from the order Mollicutes by Maniloff has given rise to a view of the evolution of these bacteria that includes an estimate of the time-scale for the emergence of some groups or features (Maniloff, 2002). This analysis suggests that about 600 million years ago (MYA), late in the Proterozoic era, Mollicutes branched away from the low G+C Gram-positive ancestor of the streptococci, losing their cell wall. At this time on Earth, molecular oxygen was present in the atmosphere at 1%, and the fossil record shows that multicellular marine animals had recently spread in the Cambrian explosion. One hundred million years later the requirement for sterols in the cytoplasmic membrane evolved along with the change to the alternate genetic code. Also, the ancestor of the genera Spiroplasma and Entomoplasma (primarily plant and insect pathogens) and Mycoplasma emerged at this time and would itself diverge into the Spiroplasma-Entomoplasma and Mycoplasma lineages approximately 100 million years after that. This diversity coincided with the origin of land plants 500 MYA. It appears that the calculated rate of evolution for the Mycoplasma group increased several fold about 190 MYA, soon after the appearance of vertebrates, while the Spiroplasma-Entomoplasma ancestor continued to evolve at the previously shared slower rate until about 100 MYA, when angiosperms and their associated pollinating insects appeared. Then the evolution rate of these bacteria appears to have also increased significantly. This is an attractive hypothesis, but while it tracks the emergence of several of the unusual characteristics of Mycoplasma and related organisms, it does not address the selective pressures driving their evolution, except perhaps the widespread close association of a parasite with a specific host. The advantages of a reduced genome, cell wall-less structure, and alternate genetic code remain murky.
首先，在污染环境的条款中，开车是一个人可以做的最坏的事情之一。现在北京发现自己出现在世界上污染最严重的首都城市名单的顶部，同墨西哥城一起，名列第二。研究同时表明，2010年上海90%的污染来自于汽车。这些污染物对我们的健康极为有害。他们可能损害肺，造成癌症，还能损害大脑。
除了环境问题，过分依赖汽车也增加了社会问题，比如交通阻塞，交通事故和噪音污染。吉普车骄傲的穿梭于北京狭窄的胡同里，就好像他们在比赛，我对此很生气。更糟糕的是，那些驾驶都从来都不尊重那些骑自行车的人。
当然，我们不能忘记，当我们需要长途旅行或者节省时间时，汽车给我们带来的好处。但是，我常常发现，在北京骑自行车从一个地方到另一个地方比汽车更快，特别是在日益严重的交通阻塞时。
由于人们比以前旅行的更多更远，汽车将肯定变得越来越重要。同时，无论如何，比起麻烦和问题，让我们努力令这个发明在我们的生活方式带来更多的便利。
可能不是很流畅，不过已经尽力了哦，呵呵
大家在这个城市要一辆汽车,我也不例外。一辆汽车所带来的旅游自由”,说我的一个朋友阅读时,一辆汽车杂志。我可能不同意他的意见,但他很可能有越来越多的中国中产阶级迅速。虽然这是事实,所有的等待,散步,的一部分人群是有点不愉快的方面存在的诸多问题,可开发当我们的生活太依赖该发明的。
首先,不污染环境,开车的最糟糕的事情之一就是一个人能做的事。北京现在发现自己在名单的榜首污染最严重的城市和首都墨西哥城第二。研究还表明,大约90%的总数预计到2010年,上海将污染物来自汽车。这些污染物是非常危险的,我们的健康。他们可以损坏(损害肺脏,导致癌症)(癌症)和脑损伤。
除了环境问题,过分依赖汽车也造成了社会问题,如交通阻塞(阻塞),交通事故、及噪音污染。骄傲的吉普车,开车穿过狭窄的胡同在北京,好像他们是在一场比赛中常常令我生气,更糟糕的是,这些司机很少尊重人骑自行车。
当然,我们不能忘记的优势时,我们需要汽车给我们带来走得又远又节省时间,但我觉得它更快的从一个地方移动到另一个周期内,尤其在北京的交通堵塞的增长。
因为人们经常旅行,比之前,汽车将肯定是未来的重要发展方向。然而,与此同时,让我们努力工作,确保该发明给我们带来了更多的便利(方便的)的生活方式而不是麻烦和疾病
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答：第二,其他的人们经常给我们提供信息支持。他们能帮助我们更好地去诠释和理解我们的问题,找到解决方案。第三,我们通常发现社会相伴持支持态度。迷人的、与他人在休闲娱乐活动可以帮助我们达到我们的社会需求的同时,又分散我们从担忧和烦恼。最后,其他的人给我们工具,支持-经济援助,物质资料和所需要的服务,能...
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答：虽然没有翻完 但是每个字都是自己翻译的 It is as though some giant’s hand were squeezing the trunks of the trees, forcing the sap up and along the branches, for the blossom seems to squirt into the air.像是巨人的手擒住了树干，令树的浆液沿着树干向上流淌，开花的芬芳向空气中喷...
请帮我翻译一下这篇文章.急.谢谢.
答：must take care of it.That means keeping the land,water and air clean .And we must take care of the rise in population at the same time .地球就是我们的家.我们需要好好地保护它,这意味着我们要保持我们的土地,水以及空气洁净. 同时我们也要关注人口的增长!完毕完毕..累死了累死了!
请帮忙翻译一下这篇文章,谢谢
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答：I have a beautiful blue closet (衣橱).我有一个美丽的蓝色壁橱（衣橱） 。 There are my many clothes in it.有我许多的衣服了。Do you like my bedroom?你喜欢我的房间里？ It looks very nice.它看起来很不错。 I like to be in it.我喜欢它。这样分开来一句句翻译，你容易懂些 ...
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答：一个母亲不能强迫她的女儿成为姐妹。她不能让他们成为朋友或同伴或什至队列犯罪活动。但是，如果她很幸运，他们找到姐妹，为自己和有一个真正的盟友终身。我的女儿似乎没有可能的候选人为姐妹的爱。他们是作为不同的作为夜间和天，和作为，相反，因为任何两个女孩生活在同一屋顶下，不可能管理。我最小...
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答：译文：牛缺是上地的一位大儒，往南到邯郸去，在耦沙遇到了强盗，把他的衣物车马全部抢走了。牛缺步行而去，看上去还是高高兴兴的样子，没有一点忧愁吝惜的面容。强盗追上去问他是什么缘故，他说：“君子不因为养身的财物而损害了身体。”强盗说：“唉！真是贤明啊！”过了一会儿强盗们又互相议论说：...
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答：Hi,Grangpa.How are you?How was you weekend?嗨，爷爷。你好吗？你的周末过得如何？I'm fine,Mike.我很好，迈克。It was good,thank you.很好，谢谢你。What did you do?你做了什么？Well,I stayed at home with your grandma.好吧，我呆在家里和你奶奶。We drink tea in the afternoon ...
